新东方背诵经典50篇(中英对照)之二

27） Scientific Theories（科学理论） In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that
are related. A theory often involves an imaginary model that helps
scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced. A good
example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases
are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant
motion.
A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to
predict events that have not as yet been observed. After a theory has been
publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory. If
observations confirm the scientists' predictions, the theory is
supported. If observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists
must search further. There may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory
may have to be revised or rejected. 
Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting
information and performing experiments. Facts by themselves are not
science. As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said,"Science is built
with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts
cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be called
a house." Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other
scientists have learned about a particular problem. After known facts have
been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the investigation that
requires considerable imagination. Possible solutions to the problem are
formulated. These possible solutions are called hypotheses.
In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It extends the
scientist's thinking beyond the known facts. The scientist plans
experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test
hypotheses. Without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose and
direction. When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into
theories.
在科学中，理论是对所观察到的相关事件的合理解释。 理论通常包含一个虚构的模型，
这个模型帮助科学家构想所观察到的事件是如何发生的。 分子运动理论便是我们能找到的 一个很好的例子。
在这个理论中，气体被描绘成由许多不断运动的小颗粒组成。 一个有用 的理论，除了能够解释过去的观测，还有助于预测那些未被观测到的事件。 一个理论公开
后，科学家们设计实验来检验这个理论。 如果观察证实了科学家的预言，这个理论则得到 了验证。 如果观察不能证实科学家的预言，科学家就必须进一步的研究。
或许是实验存在 错误，或许是这个理论必须被修改或抛弃。 科学家除了收集信息和操作实验外还需要想象 能力和创/造性思维。 事实本身并不是科学。
正如数学家乔斯?亨利?波恩克尔所说："科 学建立在事实之上，就像房子用砖砌成一样。 但事实的收集不能被称作科学，就像一堆砖 不能被叫作房子一样。
"多数科学家通过找出别的科学家在一个特定问题上的所知来开始研 究。在收集了已知事实之后，科学家开始了研究中需要相当想像力的部分。 他们尔后拟订
对这个问题的可行的解决方法。这些可行的解决方式被称为假设。 在某种意义上，任何假
设都是向未知的跳跃。它使科学家的思维超越已知事实。科学家计划实验、计算、观测以检 验假定。若没有假设，进一步的研究便缺乏目的和方向。
当假设被证实了，就成为理论的 一部分。
28 Changing Roles of Public Education（公共教育的角色变化）One of the most important social developments that helped to make
possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was the
effect of the baby boom of the 1950's and
1960's on the schools. In the 1920's, but especially in the Depression
conditions of the 1930's, the United States experienced a declining birth
rate -- every thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about
118 live children in 1920，89.2 in 1930，75.8 in 1936, and 80 in
1940. With the growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and
the economic boom that followed it young people married and established
households earlier and began to raise larger families than had their
predecessors during the Depression. Birth rates rose to 102 per thousand
in 1946, 106.2 in 1950, and 118 in 1955. Although economics was probably
the most important determinant, it is not the only explanation for the
baby boom. The increased value placed on the idea of the family also helps
to explain this rise in birth rates. The baby boomers began streaming into
the first grade by the mid 1940's and became a flood by 1950. The public
school system suddenly found itself overtaxed. While the number of
schoolchildren rose because of wartime and postwar conditions, these same
conditions made the schools even less prepared to cope with the flood. The
wartime economy meant that few new schools were built between 1940 and
1945. Moreover, during the war and in the boom times that followed, large
numbers of teachers left their profession for better-paying jobs elsewhere
in the economy.
Therefore in the 1950's and 1960's, the baby boom hit an antiquated and
inadequate school system. Consequently, the "custodial rhetoric"of the
1930's and early 1940's no longer made sense that is, keeping youths aged
sixteen and older out of the labor market by keeping them in school could
no longer be a high priority for an institution unable to find space
and staff to teach younger children aged five to sixteen. With the baby
boom, the focus of educators and of laymen interested in education
inevitably turned toward the lower grades and back to basic academic
skills and discipline. The system no longer had much interest in offering
nontraditional, new, and extra services to older youths. 
一项重要的、有可能促使人们对公共教育的角色的看法发生转变的社会发展是本世纪五六十年代的生育高峰对学校的影响。 在 20 年代，尤其是在 30 年代后的大萧条中，美国经 历了一次出生率的下降--1920 年每千名年龄在 15岁至 45 岁的妇女生下大约 118 个存活婴儿，1930 年 89.2 个，1936 年 75.8 个，1940 年 80 个。 随着二战带来的持续繁荣以及随之而来的经济增长，年轻人比大萧条中的同龄人更早地结婚成家，而且比前辈养育更大的家庭。
1946 年出生率上升到 102%，1950 年达 106%，1955 年达 118%。 对于生育高峰，经济有可
能是最重要的决定因素，但它并不是唯一的解释。 不断受到重视的家庭观念也有助于解释 出生率的上升。 到 40
年代中期为止，这些生育高峰出生的孩子们开始源源不断地进入小学 一年级。 到了 1950 年，就形成了一股洪流。 公共教育系统突然感到不堪重负了。
由于战时和战后的状况，使得学龄儿童人数增加，这些状况使得学校面对这股洪流更加措手不及。 战时经济意味着在 1940 年到 1950 年间几乎没有建立新学校。 而且，在战时和随后的经济 增长时期，大量的教师离开岗位去别处从事报酬更为优厚的工作。 因此，在五六十年代，生育高峰冲击着陈旧而不完备的学校体系。 这样一来，30 年代以及 40 年代早期，"监护理 论"就不再有意义了。 也就是说，通过使 16 岁以上的年轻人留在学校不进入劳动力市场的 做法再也不是教育机构的优先考虑了。 因为教育机构不再能找到场地和教师来教育那些更 小的 5-16 岁的孩子。 随着生育高峰，教育者和圈外人士对教育的兴趣和焦点，不可避免地 转向了更低的年级和基础的学术技能和学科上。这个系统不再有浓厚的兴趣给较年长的年 轻人提供非传统的新式的和额外的服务。
29） Telecommuting （电子交通） Telecommuting -- substituting the computer for the trip to the job -- has
been hailed as a solution to all kinds of problems related to office work.
For workers it promises freedom from the office, less time wasted in
traffic, and help with child-care conflicts. For management, telecommuting
helps keep high performers on board, minimizes tardiness and absenteeism
by eliminating commutes, allows periods of solitude for high-concentration
tasks, and provides scheduling flexibility.
In some areas, such as Southern California and Seattle, Washington, local
governments are encouraging companies to start telecommuting programs in
order to reduce rush-hour congestion and improve air quality.
But these benefits do not come easily. Making a telecommuting program
work requires careful planning and an understanding of the differences
between telecommuting realities and popular images.
Many workers are seduced by rosy illusions of life as a
telecommuter. A computer programmer from New York City moves to the
tranquil Adirondack Mountains and stays in contact with her office via
computer. A manager comes in to his office three days a week and works at
home the other two. An accountant stays home to care for her sick child;
she hooks up her telephone modem connections and does office work between
calls to the doctor.
These are powerful images, but they are a limited reflection of
reality. Telecommuting workers soon learn that it is almost impossible to
concentrate on work and care for a young child
at the same time. Before a certain age, young children cannot recognize,
much less respect, the necessary boundaries between work and family.
Additional child support is necessary if the parent is to get any work
done.
Management too must separate the myth from the reality. Although the media
has paid a great deal of attention to telecommuting in most cases
it is the employee's situation, not the availability of technology
that precipitates a telecommuting arrangement.
That is partly why, despite the widespread press coverage, the number of
companies with work-at-home programs or policy guidelines remains small.
电子交通--用电脑取代上班的往返--作为对各种各样的办公室工作问题的解决办法已受 到了欢迎。
对工作者来说，它承诺不受办公室的约束，更少的时间浪费在交通上和有助于 解决照看小孩的矛盾。
对管理者来说，电子交通有助于挽留高效率的工作者，通过省去办 公室与家之间的来回往返，大大减少工作拖拉和旷工，给予管理者独处的时间来完成需要高
度集中精神的任务，为管理者提供灵活的时间安排。 在一些地区，如南加利福尼亚和西雅
图、华盛顿，地方政府鼓励公司开始电子交通计划以减少交通高峰时的塞车和提高空气质量。 但这些益处也来之不易。
要使电子交通成功需要仔细的计划并且理解电子交通的现实状况 和流行的想象之间的区别。 许多工作者被电子交通的美好幻想所迷惑。 一位电脑程序设计
员从纽约市搬到了宁静的阿第伦达克山，用电脑保持与她办公室之间的联系。 一位经理一
周三天到办公室，其他两天在家工作；一位会计师在家照顾她生病的孩子，接通电话调制解 调器的接头，在同医生通话之余完成办公室工作。
这些是很有震撼力的情景，但也是对现 实有限的反映。 电子交通者很快发现在同一时间专注工作和照看小孩几乎是不可能的。 在
某个年龄之前，小孩子不可能意识到，更不可能尊重工作与家庭之间的界限。 如果家长要 完成工作，就必须另外照看小孩。 管理阶层必须把现实同神话分开。
虽然传媒对电子交通 投入了极大的关注，但在很大程度上，是员工的实际情况而不是技术的可能性促成电子交通 的安排。
这就是为什么尽管有广泛的报导，具有在家工作项目或行动纲领的公司数目依然 很少的部分原因。
30） The Origin of Refrigerators（冰箱的由来） By the mid-nineteenth century, the term"icebox"had entered the American
language, but ice was still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary
citizens in the United States. The ice trade grew with the growth of
cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and by some
forward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and
butter. After the Civil War
(1861-1865), as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into
household use. Even before 1880, half the ice sold in New York,
Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston and
Chicago, went to families for their own use. This had become possible
because a new household convenience, the icebox, a precursor of the
modern refrigerator, had been invented.
Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose. In the
early nineteenth century, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was
essential to a science of refrigeration, was rudimentary. The commonsense
notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the ice from melting was
of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the
cooling. Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping the
ice in blankets, which kept
the ice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth
century did inventors achieve the delicate balance of insulation and
circulation needed for an efficient icebox.
But as early as 1803, an ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been
on the right track. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of
Washington, for which the village of Georgetown was the market center. When
he used an icebox of his own design to transport his butter to market, he
found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of
his competitors to pay a premium price for his butter, still fresh and hard
in neat, one-pound bricks. One advantage of his icebox, more explained, was
that farmers would no longer have to travel to market at night in order to
keep their produce cool. 
直到 19 世纪中期，"冰箱"这个名词才进入了美国语言，但冰仅仅只是开始影响美国普 通市民的饮食。 冰的买卖随着城市的发展而发展。
冰被用在旅馆、酒馆、医院以及被一些 有眼光的城市商人用于肉、鱼和黄油的保鲜。 内战(1861-1865)之后，冰被用于冷藏货车， 同时也进入了民用。
甚至在 1880 年前，半数在纽约、费城和巴尔的摩销售的冰，三分之一
在波士顿和芝加哥销售的冰进入家庭使用，因为一种新的家庭设备，冰箱，即现代冰箱的前 身，被发明了。 制造一台有效率的冰箱不像我们想象的那么简单。
19 世纪早期，关于对 冷藏科学至关重要的热物理知识是很浅陋的。 认为最好的冰箱应该防止冰的融化这样一个
普遍的观点显然是错误的，因为正是冰的融化起了制冷作用。 早期为节省冰的努力，包括 用毯子把冰包起来，使得冰不能发挥它的作用。 直到近 19
世纪末，发明家们才成功地找到 有效率的冰箱所需要的精确的隔热和循环的精确平衡。 但早在 1803 年，一位有发明天才的
马里兰农场主，托马斯?莫尔，找到了正确方法。 他拥有一个农场，离华盛顿约 20 英里， 那里的乔治镇村庄是集市中心。
当他用自己设计的冰箱运送黄油去市场时，他发现顾客们 会走过装在竞争者桶里那些迅速融化的黄油而给他比市价更高的价格买他仍然新鲜坚硬，整
齐地切成一磅一块的黄油。 莫尔说他的冰箱的一个好处是使得农民们不必在夜里上路去市 场以保持他们产品的低温。
31） British Columbia（英属哥伦比亚） British Columbia is the third largest Canadian province, both in area
and population. It is nearly 1.5 times as large as Texas, and extends
800 miles (1,280km) north from the United States border. It includes
Canada's entire west coast and the islands just off the coast.
Most of British Columbia is mountainous, with long rugged ranges running
north and south. Even the coastal islands are the remains of a mountain
range that existed thousands of years ago. During the last Ice Age, this
range was scoured by glaciers until most of it was beneath the sea. Its
peaks now show as islands scattered along the coast.
The southwestern coastal region has a humid mild marine climate. Sea
winds that blow inland from the west are warmed by a current of warm
water that flows through the Pacific Ocean. As a result, winter
temperatures average above freezing and summers are mild. These warm
western winds also carry moisture from the ocean.
Inland from the coast, the winds from the Pacific meet the mountain
barriers of the coastal ranges and the Rocky Mountains. As they rise to
cross the mountains, the winds are cooled, and their moisture begins to
fall as rain. On some of the western slopes almost 200 inches (500cm) of
rain fall each year.
More than half of British Columbia is heavily forested. On mountain slopes
that receive plentiful rainfall, huge Douglas firs rise in towering
columns. These forest giants often grow to be as much as 300 feet (90m)
tall, with diameters up to 10 feet (3m). More lumber is produced from these
trees than from any other kind of tree in North America. Hemlock, red
cedar, and balsam fir are among the other trees found in British Columbia. 
英属哥伦比亚是加拿大的第三大省，无论是面积还是人口都是如此。 它几乎是德克萨 斯的 1.5 倍，从美国边境一直向北延伸了 800 英里(1，280公里)。 它包括了加拿大整个西 海岸及附近岛屿。 大部分英属哥伦比亚多山峦。 绵长而粗犷的山脉贯通南北。 甚至那些沿海的岛屿都是那些存在于千万年前的山脉的遗迹。 在上一个冰河时期，这些山脉被冰河 冲刷侵蚀，直到大部分山脉被淹没在海中。它们的峰顶显现为沿着海岸散布的岛屿。 西南 海岸地区有着潮湿温和的海洋性气候。 从太平洋来的温暖的洋流使得从西吹过内陆的海风 变得温暖。因此这儿冬天平均气温在零上而且夏天也不会酷热。 这些温暖的西风同样也从 海洋带来了湿气。来自太平洋的、从海岸向内陆的风遇到海岸山脉和落基山脉这些山脉屏 障。 当气流升高跨越这些山脉时，风的温度就降低了，风中的水分形成降雨。 在一些朝西山坡区域每年大约有 200 英寸(500 厘米)的降水。 大部分英属哥伦比亚密布着森林。 在有 充足降水的斜坡，巨大的道格拉斯枞树高耸入云。这些森林巨人常常长到高达 300 英尺(90 米)，直径粗达 10 英尺(3 米)。 这些树产出了比北美其他任何树都多的木材。 铁杉、红香椿、香脂冷杉枞都是发现于英属哥伦比亚的其它树种。
32） Botany（植物学）  Botany, the study of plants, occupies a peculiar position in the history of
human knowledge. For many thousands of years it was the one
field of awareness about which humans had anything more than the
vaguest of insights. It is impossible to know today just what our Stone Age
ancestors knew about plants, but from what we can observe of preindustrial
societies that still exist a detailed learning of plants and their
properties must be extremely ancient. This is logical. Plants are the
basis of the food pyramid for all living things even for other plants. They
have always been enormously important to the welfare of people not only for
food, but also for clothing, weapons, tools, dyes, medicines, shelter, and
a great many other purposes. Tribes living today in the jungles of the
Amazon recognize literally hundreds of plants and know many properties of
each. To them, botany, as such, has no name and is probably not even
recognized as a special branch of "knowledge"at all.
Unfortunately, the more industrialized we become the farther away we move
from direct contact with plants, and the less distinct our knowledge of
botany grows. Yet everyone comes unconsciously on an amazing amount of
botanical knowledge, and few people will fail to recognize a rose,
an apple, or an orchid. When our Neolithic ancestors, living in the Middle
East about 10, 000 years ago, discovered that certain grasses could be
harvested and their seeds planted for richer yields the next season the
first great step in a new association of plants and humans was taken.
Grains were discovered and from them flowed the marvel of agriculture:
cultivated crops. From then on, humans would increasingly take their living
from the controlled production of a few plants, rather than getting a
little here and a little there from many varieties that grew wild - and the
accumulated knowledge of tens of thousands of years of experience and
intimacy with plants in the wild would begin to fade away.
植物学，即对植物的研究，在人类知识的历史中占据了特殊的地位。 这是人类几千年来超越模糊的认知而真正有所了解的领域之一。我们今天不可能知道新石器时代的祖先们 对植物到底了解多少，但我们在至今仍存在的前工业化社会观察到：人类对植物及其特性的 详细了解应该是非常古老的。
这是理所当然的。 植物是其他生物甚至其他植物食物金字塔 的基础。 它们对人们的生活至关重要，不仅在食物上，而且在衣物、武器、工具、染料、药物、住所和许许多多其他的用途上。 至今仍生活在亚马逊河丛林中的部落确实能够辨识 几百种植物并知道每一种的许多特性。对他们来说，植物学没有专门的名称，甚至可能根 本未被认为是一种专门知识。 不幸的是，工业化的程度越高，我们距直接与植物接触就越 远，我们的植物学知识的增加也就越微不足道。 然而每个人在不知不觉中拥有大量的植物学知识，很少有人认不出玫瑰、苹果或兰花。
大约一万年前居住在中东的新时代的祖先们 发现某些草能被收获，它们的种子下一季耕种会收获更多时，人类就迈出了人和植物之间的 新关系第一大步。 谷子被发现后，农业的奇迹从此诞生：这就是可栽培的谷物。从那时起， 人类越来越依赖少数可控制的作物生存，而不再是从众多的野生种类中这里获取一点，那里获取一点。这样在千万年中对于野生植物的经验和密切联系中积累起来的知识就开始消失 了。
33） Plankton（浮游生物）Scattered through the seas of the world are billions of tons of small
plants and animals called plankton. Most of these plants and animals are
too small for the human eye to see. They drift about lazily with the
currents, providing a basic food for many larger animals.
Plankton has been described as the equivalent of the grasses that grow on
the dry land continents, and the comparison is an appropriate one. In
potential food value, however, plankton far outweighs that of the land
grasses. One scientist has estimated that while grasses of the world
produce about 49 billion tons of valuable carbohydrates each year, the
sea's plankton generates more than twice as much.
Despite its enormous food potential, little effect was made until recently
to farm plankton as we farm grasses on land. Now marine scientists have at
last begun to study this possibility, especially as the sea's resources
loom even more important as a means of feeding an expanding world
population.
No one yet has seriously suggested that "planktonburgers" may soon become
popular around the world. As a possible farmed supplementary food
source, however, plankton is gaining considerable interest among marine
scientists.
One type of plankton that seems to have great harvest possibilities is a
tiny shrimplike creature called krill. Growing to two or three inches long,
krill provide the major food for the great blue whale, the largest animal
ever inhabit the Earth. Realizing that this whale may grow to
100 feet and weigh 150 tons at maturity, it is not surprising that each one
devours more than one ton of krill daily. 
数十亿吨的被称为"浮游生物"的小动物、植物散布在世界的海洋中。 这些小 的动、植物大多太小而难以被人眼看到。
它们随波逐流，为许多较大的动物提供了基本的 食物。 浮游生物曾被描述为生长在大陆陆地上的各种草类的海洋对应物。 这种比喻是恰当的。 然而就潜在的食物价值而言，浮游生物远胜于草类。 一位科学家曾经估计，世界上的 草类每年生产大约 490
亿吨有用的碳水化合物，而海洋里的浮游生物每年生产的碳水化合物 多于此数的两倍。 尽管浮游生物具备巨大的食物潜能，但直到最近人们还很少象种植草类那样付出努力养殖浮游生物。 现在，海洋科学家们至少已开始研究这种可能性。 全球人口 不断扩张，海洋资源作为食品的重要性日益突出。 现在还没有人认真说过"浮游生物汉堡" 会很快在世界上流行起来。 然而，作为一种可能养殖的补充性食物资源，浮游生物正引起 了海洋科学家们相当大的兴趣。 一种似乎具有很大收获可能性的微小的虾状浮游生物被称 为鳞虾。 鳞虾长至 2～3 英寸长时即成为地球上曾居住过的最大动物--蓝鲸的主要食物。成熟的蓝鲸可以达到 100 英尺长，150 吨重，所以每头鲸每天吞食 1 吨多的鳞虾一点也不让人 吃惊。
34） Raising Oysters （饲养牡蛎） In the past oysters were raised in much the same way as dirt farmers raised
tomatoes - by transplanting them. First, farmers selected the oyster
bed, cleared the bottom of old shells and other debris, then scattered
clean shells about. Next, they "planted" fertilized oyster eggs, which
within two or three weeks hatched into larvae. The larvae drifted until
they attached themselves to the clean shells on the bottom. There they
remained and in time grew into baby oysters called seed or spat. The spat
grew larger by drawing in seawater from which they derived microscopic
particles of food. Before long, farmers gathered the baby oysters,
transplanted them in other waters to speed up their growth, then
transplanted them once more into another body of water to fatten them up.
Until recently the supply of wild oysters and those crudely farmed were
more than enough to satisfy people's needs.
But today the delectable seafood is no longer available in abundance. The
problem has become so serious that some oyster beds have vanished
entirely.
Fortunately, as far back as the early 1900's marine biologists realized
that if new measures were not taken, oysters would become extinct or
at best a luxury food. So they set up well-equipped hatcheries and
went to work. But they did not have the proper equipment or the skill to
handle the eggs. They did not know when, what, and how to feed the larvae.
And they knew little about the predators that attack and eat baby oysters
by the millions. They failed, but they doggedly kept at it. Finally, in the
1940's a significant breakthrough was made.
The marine biologists discovered that by raising the temperature of the
water, they could induce oysters to spawn not only in the summer but also
in the fall, winter, and spring. Later they developed a technique for
feeding the larvae and rearing them to spat. Going still further, they
succeeded in breeding new strains that were resistant to diseases, grew
faster and larger, and flourished in water of different salinities and
temperatures. In addition, the cultivated oysters tasted better! 
过去人们饲养牡蛎的方式很大程度上类似于田地里的农夫种植蕃茄--通过移植来饲养 它们。
首先，农夫选好牡蛎苗床，清除底部的旧壳和其它杂物，然后四处撒播干净的壳。 接 着，他们"栽种"已受精的牡蛎卵。 这些卵在 2～3 周内会孵化成幼贝。 幼贝一直漂流直到 粘在苗床底部干净的壳上为止。 它们会呆在那儿并逐渐长成小牡蛎。 我们称之为种子或贝苗。 贝苗吸进海水中的微小生物作为食物从而越长越大。 不久之后，农夫将这些小牡蛎收集起来，把它们移种进其他的水域加快其生长，然后再次将它们移种进另外的水域以使其肥 壮起来。 直到最近，野生的以及人工饲养的牡蛎完全能够满足人们的需要。但是今天这种可口的海味已不再大量存在。这个问题已经变得如此严重以至于一些牡蛎苗床已完全消失。 幸运的是，早在 20 世纪初期海洋生物学家们就意识到如果不采取新的措施，牡蛎将会灭绝 或至少会变为一种奢侈的食品。 因此他们建造了装备良好的孵卵场所并开始工作。 但是他们尚没有适当的装置或技术来处理牡蛎卵。他们不知道何时、用什么以及如何喂养幼贝。他 们对捕食数百万幼小牡蛎的动物天敌也所知无几。他们失败了，但他们顽强地坚持了下来。 终于，在 20 世纪 40 年代，一个重要的突破性的进展产生了。 海洋生物学家发现，升高水温能够诱导牡蛎不仅在夏季也在秋季、冬季和春季里产卵。 后来他们发展了一项技术来喂 养幼贝至其长成贝苗。他们进一步成功地培养出了新的品种，可以抵抗疾病、长得更快、 更大并且在不同的盐度和温度的水中都能茁壮生长。此外，这些培殖出的牡蛎口感更佳!
35） Oil Refining（炼油） An important new industry, oil refining, grew after the Civil War. Crude
oil, or petroleum -- a dark, thick ooze from the earth -- had been known
for hundreds of years, but little use had ever been made of it. In the
1850's Samuel M. Kier, a manufacturer in western Pennsylvania, began
collecting the oil from local seepages and refining it into kerosene.
Refining, like smelting, is a process of removing impurities from a raw
material.
Kerosene was used to light lamps. It was a cheap substitute for
whale oil, which was becoming harder to get. Soon there was a large
demand for kerosene. People began to search for new supplies of petroleum.
The first oil well was drilled by E. L. Drake, a retired railroad
conductor. In 1859 he began drilling in Titusville, Pennsylvania. The whole
venture seemed so impractical and foolish that onlookers called it "Drake's
Folly". But when he had drilled down about 70 feet (21 meters), Drake
struck oil. His well began to yield 20 barrels of crude oil a day.
News of Drake's success brought oil prospectors to the scene. By the early
1860's these wildcatters were drilling for "black gold" all over western
Pennsylvania. The boom rivaled the California gold rush of 1848 in its
excitement and Wild West atmosphere. And it brought far more wealth to
the prospectors than any gold rush.
Crude oil could be refined into many products. For some years kerosene
continued to be the principal one. It was sold in grocery stores and
door-to-door. In the 1880's refiners learned how to make other petroleum
products such as waxes and lubricating oils. Petroleum was not then used to
make gasoline or heating oil. 
一种重要的新兴工业--炼油业在国内战争后成长起来。 未加工的石油，或原油--一种深 色的地下的稠浆--数百年来一直为大众所知，但是人们却很少使用过它。
在十九世纪五十 年代，萨缪尔.科尔，宾西法尼亚西部的一位制造商，开始从当地的溢出物中收集石油
并将它炼成煤油。与冶炼矿石一样，石油提炼是一个从未加工的原料中除去杂质的过程。煤 油被用来点灯。
它是鲸油的一种便宜的替代品，而鲸油正变得越来越难以获得。 不久就产 生了对煤油的大量需求。人们开始寻找新的石油供应。 第一口油井为瑞克，一个退休的火车检票员所钻得。1859 年他开始在宾西法尼亚的泰特斯维尔钻井。整个的这项
冒险事业看起来是如此不现实和愚蠢以致旁观者称之为"鸭子的蠢行"。 (译者注：Drake's Folly, drake
在这里意含双关，即指瑞克的名字，又指该词的本义即鸭子。 )但当瑞克往下钻 至 70 英尺(21 米)的时候，他发现了石油。 他的油井从此每天生产20 桶原油。 瑞克成功的 消息将石油勘探者们吸引到现场。 截止到 19 世纪 60 年代早期，这些冒险者为寻找"黑色的金子"钻探遍了整个宾西法尼亚西部。 这项繁荣的事业在刺激性和粗犷的西部气氛上可与1848 年的加州淘金热相媲美，而且它为勘探者带来了远超过淘金潮的财富。 原油能被提炼 成许多产品。 多年以来煤油一直是主要的一种产品。它在杂货店中出售由人挨户推销。 19 世纪八十九十年代炼油者们懂得了生产其它石油产品，如蜡和润滑油。 那时石油还没有被用来制造汽油或采暖装置用油。
36) Plate Tectonics and Sea-floor Spreading(板块结构与海床扩展)The theory of plate tectonics describes the motions of the lithosphere, the
comparatively rigid outer layer of the Earth that includes all the crust
and part of the underlying mantle. The lithosphere is divided into a few
dozen plates of various sizes and shapes, in general the plates are in
motion with respect to one another. A mid-ocean ridge is a boundary
between plates where new lithospheric material is injected from belows. As
the plates diverge from a mid-ocean ridge they slide on a more yielding
layer at the base of the lithosphere.
Since the size of the Earth is essentially constant, new lithosphere can
be created at the mid-ocean ridges only if an equal amount of lithospheric
material is consumed elsewhere. The site of this destruction is another
kind of plate boundary: a subduction zone. There one plate dives under the
edge of another and is reincorporated into the mantle. Both kinds of plate
boundary are associated with fault systems, earthquakes and volcanism, but
the kinds of geologic activity observed at the two boundaries are quite
different. 
The idea of sea-floor spreading actually preceded the theory of plate
tectonics. In its original version, in the early 1960's, it described the
creation and destruction of the ocean floor, but it did not specify rigid
lithospheric plates. The hypothesis was substantiated soon afterward by the
discovery that periodic reversals of the Earth's magnetic field are
recorded in the oceanic crust. As magma rises under the mid-ocean
ridge, ferromagnetic minerals in the magma become magnetized in the
direction of the geomagnetic field. When the magma cools and solidifies,
the direction and the polarity of the field are preserved in the magnetized
volcanic rock. Reversals of the field give rise to a series of magnetic
stripes running parallel to the axis of the rift. The oceanic crust thus
serves as a magnetic tape recording of the history of the geomagnetic field
that can be dated independently; the width of the stripes indicates the
rate of the sea-floor spreading.
板块结构理论描述岩石圈的运动。 岩石圈是相对坚硬的地球外层，包括全部地壳和部 分地幔。 岩石圈被划分为几十个大小不同形状各异的板块，一般而言这些板块都处于相对 运动之中。 一道中海脊是板块之间的边界，在那里新的岩石圈的物质从下部注入。 当板块从中海脊脱离时，它们滑向在岩石圈基部较易变形的地层上。 因为地球的大小本质上是不变的，只有同等数量的岩石圈物质在其它地方被吞没，新的岩石圈才能生成。销毁旧岩石
圈的地方形成另外一种板块边界：一块潜没的区域。 在这里，一块板块潜没到另一板块的 边缘之下并结合入地幔之中。
两种板块边界均与地层系统、地震以及火山活动有关，但在 两种边界处观察到的诸般地质活动却迥然不同。 海床扩展说实际上早于板块结构理论。在20 世纪 60 年代它的理论雏形中，描述了海底的生成和毁灭，但没有详细介绍坚硬的岩石圈 板块。 这个假定不久之后为发现所证实。该发现表明地球磁场周期性的逆转被记录在海洋 地壳中。 当岩浆从中海脊下涌起的时候，岩浆中的磁铁矿物质按地磁场的方向被磁化。岩浆冷却并凝固下来后，地磁场的方向和磁极被保留在磁化了的火山岩中。 磁场的逆转形成 一系列与断层轴线平行的条形磁区。这样海洋壳就扮演了磁带的角色，记录下可以鉴定时 间的地磁场的历史。 条形磁区的宽度表明了海底扩展的速度。
37) Icebergs (冰山)Icebergs are among nature's most spectacular creations, and yet most people
have never seen one. A vague air of mystery envelops them. They come into
being -- somewhere -- in faraway, frigid waters, amid thunderous noise and
splashing turbulence, which in most case no one hears or sees. They exist
only a short time and then slowly waste away just as unnoticed.
Objects of sheerest beauty they have been called. Appearing in an endless
variety of shapes, they may be dazzlingly white, or they may be glassy
blue, green or purple, tinted faintly or in darker hues. They are
graceful, stately, inspiring -- in calm, sunlight seas.
But they are also called frightening and dangerous, and that they are -- in
the night, in the fog, and in storms. Even in clear weather one is wise to
stay a safe distance away from them. Most of their bulk is hidden below the
water, so their underwater parts may extend out far beyond the visible top.
Also, they may roll over unexpectedly, churning the waters around them.
Icebergs are parts of glaciers that break off, drift into the water, float
about awhile, and finally melt. Icebergs afloat today are made of
snowflakes that have fallen over long ages of time. They embody snows that
drifted down hundreds, or many thousands, or in some cases maybe a
million years ago. The snows fell in polar regions and on cold mountains,
where they melted only a little or not at all, and so collected to great
depths over the years and centuries.
As each year's snow accumulation lay on the surface, evaporation and
melting caused the snowflakes slowly to lose their feathery points and
become tiny grains of ice. When new snow fell on top of the old, it too
turned to icy grains. So blankets of snow and ice grains mounted layer upon
layer and were of such great thickness that the weight of the upper layers
compressed the lower ones. With time and pressure from above, the many
small ice grains joined and changed to larger crystals, and eventually the
deeper crystals merged into a solid mass of ice. 
冰山是大自然最壮观的创造之一，但大多数人却从未看到过冰山，一种朦胧神秘的气氛 笼罩着它们。 冰山形成于久远的、寒冷的水体中，而且伴随着雷声轰鸣般的嘈杂和水花汹涌的风暴，但却无人耳闻目睹。冰山仅存在短短的一段时间就慢慢地悄无声息地融化掉。冰 山具有最纯粹的美，人们如是说。
冰山呈现出千姿百态，可能白得耀眼，或者是闪耀着蓝 色、绿色或紫色的玻璃般的光芒，或浓或淡。它们在平静的阳光照耀的海水中显得优雅堂皇，令人浮想联翩。但是人们亦把冰山称为恐怖的和危险的。 它们的确如此--在夜间，雾天和风暴肆虐时。即便是在晴朗的天气里，与它们保持一段安全距离也是明智的。 冰山的 大部分体积稳藏于水下，因此其水下部分的伸展远远超过可见的顶部。 冰山也可能出人意料地翻滚，剧烈地搅动周围的水体。 冰山是冰川的一部分，从冰川断裂漂流进水中，一段 时间后融化。今天的冰山由多年前降落的雪花形成。它们的体内是数百年，或数千年，有 时甚至是数百万年前的降雪。 这些雪花落在极地或寒冷的山上，仅有少量融化或根本不融化，这样经过许多年或许多世纪后积累了巨大的深度。 由于每年的雪花积累在表面之上，蒸发和融化使得雪花慢慢失去其羽状尖端而变成微小的冰粒。当新的雪花降落到旧的表面上，也变成了冰粒。因而雪花覆盖层和冰粒层层堆积起来直到如此之大的厚度以致较上层 的重量压缩较下层。在时间和压力的作用下，许多小冰粒结合到一起变成更大的晶体，最 终较底层的晶体合并成庞大而坚固的冰块。
38) Topaz(黄水晶)Topaz is a hard, transparent mineral. It is a compound of aluminum, silica,
and fluorine. Gem topaz is valuable. Jewelers call this variety of the
stone "precious topaz". The best-known precious topaz gems range in color
from rich yellow to light brown or pinkish red. Topaz is one of the hardest
gem minerals. In the mineral table of hardness, it has a rating of 8, which
means that a knife cannot cut it, and that topaz will scratch quartz.
The golden variety of precious topaz is quite uncommon. Most of the world's
topaz is white or blue. The white and blue crystals of topaz are large,
often weighing thousands of carats. For this reason, the value of topaz
does not depend so much on its size as it does with diamonds and many other
precious stones, where the value increases about four times with each
doubling of weight. The value of a topaz is largely determined by its
quality. But color is also important: blue topaz, for instance, is often
irradiated to deepen and improve its color.
Blue topaz is often sold as aquamarine and a variety of brown quartz is
widely sold as topaz. The quartz is much less brilliant and more plentiful
than true topaz. Most of it is a variety of amethyst: that heat has turned
brown. 
黄水晶是一种坚硬、透明的矿物质。 它是铝、硅和氟的化合物。 黄水晶宝石价值不菲。 珠宝商把这种石头称为"黄玉"。
最出名的黄玉有各种颜色如深黄色、淡棕色、浅红色等。 黄 水晶是最坚硬的宝石矿中的一种。 在矿石硬度表上，它的硬度为 8，这表明刀子不能割开它而它可在石英上划痕。 金黄色的黄玉品种非常罕见。 世界上大多数的黄水晶是白色或蓝 色的。 这些白色或蓝色的黄水晶晶体很大，常常有数千克拉重。
由于这个原因，黄水晶的 价值不像钻石和许多其它宝石那样主要依赖于其大小，重量翻一番价值即上升约四倍。 黄
水晶的价值很大程度上取决于其品质，但颜色也很重要。 举例来说，蓝色的黄水晶常需放 射处理以加深和改善其颜色。
蓝色的黄水晶常被作为海蓝宝石出售，许多种棕色石英被当 作黄水晶广为贩卖。 石英光亮度远小于黄水晶，矿藏储量也远较黄水晶丰富。 大多数石英是一种紫水晶，高温使其变为棕色。
39) The Salinity of Ocean Waters(海水盐度) If the salinity of ocean waters is analyzed, it is found to vary only
slightly from place to place. Nevertheless, some of these small changes are
important. There are three basic processes that
cause a change in oceanic salinity.
One of these is the subtraction of water from the ocean by means of
evaporation - conversion of liquid water to water vapor. In this manner the
salinity is increased, since the salts stay behind. If this is carried to
the extreme, of course, white crystals of salt would be left behind.
The opposite of evaporation is precipitation, such as rain, by which
water is added to the ocean. Here the ocean is being diluted so that the
salinity is decreased. This may occur in areas of high rainfall or in
coastal regions where rivers flow into the ocean. Thus salinity
may be increased by the subtraction of water by evaporation, or decreased
by the addition of fresh water by precipitation or runoff.
Normally, in tropical regions where the sun is very strong, the ocean
salinity is somewhat higher than it is in other parts of the world where
there is not as much evaporation. Similarly, in coastal regions where
rivers dilute the sea, salinity is somewhat lower than in other oceanic
areas.
A third process by which salinity may be altered is associated with the
formation and melting of sea ice. When sea water is frozen, the dissolved
materials are left behind. In this manner, sea water directly beneath
freshly formed sea ice has a higher salinity than it did before the ice
appeared. Of course, when this ice melts, it will tend to decrease the
salinity of the surrounding water. In the Weddell Sea Antarctica, the
densest water in the oceans is formed as a result of this freezing process,
which increases the salinity of cold water. This heavy water sinks and is
found in the deeper portions of the oceans of the world. 
如果我们分析海水的盐度，会发现地区间只有轻微的变化，然而有些小的变化是重要的。
导致海洋的盐度变化的基本过程有三个，其中之一是通过蒸发的方式即把液态水转化为水蒸 气来减少海洋中的水分。 这样由于盐留了下来，所以盐度增大。当然，如果这种方式走向 极端，将会余下白色的盐晶体。 与蒸发相反的是降水，如降雨，由此水被加入海中，海水 被稀释，从而盐度降低。这种情形会发生在大量降雨的地区，或江河入海岸处。 因此，盐 度通过蒸发减少水分而上升或通过降水或径流增加淡水成分而下降。 一般来说，在阳光很强烈的热带地区，海水的盐度略高于世界上其它没有热带那样多的蒸发的地区。 同理，在 江河稀释海水的海岸地带，海水盐度略低于其它海区。第三个可以变更盐度的过程与海洋 中冰的形成和融化有关。 海水冻结时，溶于其中的物质被留了下来。 这样，在新形成的海水冰面的正下方的海水比在冰形成之前有更高的盐度。当然，当冰融化的时候，会降低周 围水中的盐度。
在南极洲边缘的威德尔海中，结冰过程增加低温海水的盐度，从而形成了 浓度最大的海水。 这些大密度的海水下沉，可以在世界海洋的深水域发现。
40) Cohesion-tension Theory(内聚压力理论)Atmospheric pressure can support a column of water up to 10 meters high.
But plants can move water much higher; the sequoia tree can pump water to
its very top more than 100 meters above the ground. Until the end of the
nineteenth century, the movement of water in trees and other tall plants
was a mystery. Some botanists hypothesized that the living cells of plants
acted as pumps. But many experiments demonstrated that the stems of plants
in which all the cells are killed can still move water to appreciable
heights. Other explanations for the movement of water in plants have been
based on root pressure, a push on the water from the roots at the bottom of
the plant. But root pressure is not nearly great enough to push water to
the tops of tall trees. Furthermore, the conifers, which are among the
tallest trees, have unusually low root pressures.
If water is not pumped to the top of a tall tree, and if it is not pushed
to the top of a tall tree, then we may ask: how does it get there?
According to the currently accepted cohesion-tension theory, water is
pulled there. The pull on a rising column of water in a plant results
from the evaporation of water at the top of the plant. As water is lost
from the surface of the leaves, a negative pressure, or tension, is
created. The evaporated water is replaced by water moving from inside the
plant in unbroken columns that extend from the top of a plant to its roots.
The same forces that create surface tension in any sample of water are
responsible for the maintenance of these unbroken columns of water. When
water is confined in tubes of very small bore, the forces of cohesion (the
attraction between water molecules) are so great that the strength of a
column of water compares with the strength of a steel wire of the same
diameter. This cohesive strength permits columns of water to be pulled to
great heights without being broken. 
大气压能够支持 10 米高的水柱，但植物可将水送得更高。 美洲红杉就能把水泵到地面 以上 100 多米高的树顶。 直到 19
世纪末，水在树木和其它高大植物中的输送还是一个谜。 一些植物学家假定植物中的活细胞充当了水泵的角色。 但许多实验表明细胞都已死亡的植物茎干仍能将水输送到相当可观的高度。 对于植物中输送水的其它解释都基于根压--植物 底端的根对水的推动。 但根压完全不足以将水推到树顶。况且，最高树木中的松柏只有很 低的根压。 如果水不是被泵到高树的树顶，也不是被推到树顶，那么我们会问：它是怎样到达树顶的呢?根据目前为人们所接受的内聚压力的理论，水是被拉到上面去的。 一株植物中作用于一个正在升高的水柱之上的拉力来自该植物顶部水的蒸发。 由于水从叶子表面丧 失，一个负压力，或张力就得以产生。 蒸发出去的水被植物里流动的水代替。 这些水形成 水柱从植物顶端一直延伸到根部。在任何水样中造成表面张力的力支持着这些不断的水柱。当水被限制在内径很小的管道中时，内聚压力(水分子之间的相互吸引力)是如此之大以致一 支水柱的强度相当于一根直径相同的钢丝的强度。
这种内聚压力使得水柱被拉到非常高的 地方而不会断裂。
41) American Black Bears(美国黑熊) American black bears appear in a variety of colors despite their name. In
the eastern part of their range, most of these bears have shiny black fur,
but in the west they grow brown, red, or even yellow coats. To the north,
the black bear is actually gray or white in color. Even in the same litter,
both brown and black furred bears may be born.
Black bears are the smallest of all American bears, ranging in length from
five to six feet, weighing from three hundred to five hundred pounds. Their
eyes and ears are small and their eyesight and hearing are not as good as
their sense of smell.
Like all bears, the black bear is timid, clumsy, and rarely dangerous, but
if attacked, most can climb trees and cover ground at great speeds. When
angry or frightened, it is a formidable enemy.
Black bears feed on leaves, herbs, roots, fruit, berries, insects, fish,
and even larger animals. One of the most interesting characteristics of
bears, including the black bear, is their winter sleep. Unlike squirrels,
woodchucks, and many other woodland animals, bears do not
actually hibernate. Although the bear does not eat during the winter months,
sustaining itself from body fat, its temperature remains almost normal, and
it breathes regularly four or five times per minute.
Most black bears live alone, except during mating season. They prefer
to live in caves, hollow logs, or dense thickets. A litter of one to four
cubs is born in January or February after a gestation period of six to nine
months, and they remain with their mother until they are fully grown or
about one and a half years old. Black bears can live as long as thirty
years in the wild, and even longer in game preserves set aside for them. 
美国黑熊虽然被叫做黑熊但却有各种各样的颜色。 在它们生活区域的东部，大部分黑 熊长有富有光泽的黑毛，但在西部，他们则长着棕色、红色甚至是黄色的毛。
在北部，黑 熊其实长着灰色或白色的毛。 就是在一胎所生的小熊中，都可能混杂棕毛和黑毛。 黑熊是 所有美洲熊中最小的，5～6 英尺长，300～500 磅重。 它们的眼睛和耳朵都很小，他们的视 力和听觉不如嗅觉那样好。 像所有的熊一样，黑熊胆小，笨拙，很少具有危险性。但如果受到攻击，大部分黑熊会以很快的速度爬上树和奔跑。 当发怒或受惊吓时，黑熊会成为可 怕的对手。
黑熊以树叶、草、树根、水果、浆果、昆虫、鱼，甚至更大的动物为食。 熊类， 包括黑熊的最有趣的一个特点是他们的冬眠。
与松鼠、旱獭和其它别的林地动物不同，熊 并不真正地冬眠。 虽然熊在冬天的几个月中不吃东西，靠体内脂肪维持生命，但它们的体温保持正常，并有规律地一分钟呼吸 4 或 5 次。除交配季节外，大多数黑熊独自生活。 他 们喜欢住在洞里、空心的大木头里或茂密的树丛里。 经过 6 到 9 个月的怀孕期后一胎 1～4 个小熊在 1 月或 2 月出生。 它们同母熊住在一起，直到它们完全长大，即 1 岁半左右。黑熊在野外可以活到长达 30 年，在专门的保护区中甚至能活得更长。
42) Coal-fired Power Plants(火力发电厂)The invention of the incandescent light bulb by Thomas A. Edison in 1879
created a demand for a cheap, readily available fuel with which to generate
large amounts of electric power. Coal seemed to fit the bill, and it fueled
the earliest power stations (which were set up at the end of the nineteenth
century by Edison himself). As more power plants were constructed
throughout the country, the reliance on coal increased. Since the First
World War, coal-fired power plants have accounted for about half of the
electricity produced in the United States each year. In 1986 such plants
had a combined generating capacity of 289, 000 megawatts and consumed 83
percent of the nearly 900 million tons of coal mined in the country that
year. Given the uncertainty in the future growth of nuclear power and in
the supply of oil and natural gas, coal-fired power plants could well
provide up to 70 percent of the electric power in the United States by the
end of the century.
Yet, in spite of the fact that coal has long been a source of electricity
and may remain one for many years (coal represents about 80 percent
of United States fossil-fuel reserves), it has actually never been
the most desirable fossil fuel for power plants. Coal contains less energy
per unit of weight than natural gas or oil; it is difficult to transport,
and it is associated with a host of environmental issues, among them acid
rain. Since the late 1960's problems of emission control and waste disposal
have sharply reduced the appeal of coal-fired power plants. The cost of
ameliorating these environmental problems along with the rising cost of
building a facility as large and complex as a coal-fired power plant,
have also made such plants less attractive from a
purely economic perspective.
Changes in the technological base of coal-fired power plants could restore
their attractiveness, however. Whereas some of these changes are
evolutionary and are intended mainly to increase the productivity of
existing plants, completely new technologies for burning coal cleanly are
also being developed.
托马斯.爱迪生 1879 年发明的白炽灯导致对便宜、易得、可生产大量电能 的燃料的需求。
煤似乎符合这个要求，并成为第一批电厂的燃料(正是爱迪生本人在 19 世 纪末建造了第一批电厂)。 全国到处兴建电厂时，对煤的依赖加深了。自第一次世界大战 以来，美国每年约有一半的电力是以煤为燃料的电厂提供的。 1986 年这些电厂的总发电能 力达到 28，900千瓦并且消耗了当年全国开采的九亿吨煤的 83%。 考虑到核能发展以及石 油、天然气供应中的不确定因素，到本世纪末，火力发电厂仍可能为美国提供多达 70%的 电力。 然而，尽管煤长期以来一直是电力的原料之一并且可能会继续如此(煤占美国化石燃 料储量的 80%)，它却不是电厂的理想燃料。煤的单位能量含量低于石油和天然气，而且会 导致包括酸雨在内的一系列环境问题。 从 1960 年以来，排放控制和垃圾处理的问题极大地削弱了燃煤电厂的魅力。 由于减轻这些环境问题需要大量资金，而且建造庞大复杂的燃煤 电厂的费用不断上涨，也使得这些电厂从经济角度上不具备吸引力。改变火力发电厂的基 础技术却可能恢复它们的吸引力。 虽然某些技术改进是渐进的，其目的只是提高现有电厂 的生产率，但人们正在开发全新的清洁燃煤的技术。
43) Statistics(统计学） There were two widely divergent influences on the early development of
statistical methods. Statistics had a mother who was dedicated to keeping
orderly records of governmental units (state and statistics come from the
same Latin root status) and a gentlemanly gambling father who relied on
mathematics to increase his skill at playing the odds in games of chance.
The influence of the mother on the offspring, statistics, is represented
by counting, measuring, describing, tabulating, ordering, and the
taking of censuses -- all of which led to modern descriptive
statistics. From the influence of the father came modern inferential
statistics, which is based squarely on theories of probability.
Descriptive statistics involves tabulating, depicting and describing
collections of data. These data may be quantitative such as measures of
height, intelligence or grade level -- variables that are characterized by
an underlying continuum -- or the data may represent qualitative variables,
such as sex, college major or personality type. Large masses of data must
generally undergo a process of summarization or reduction before they are
comprehensible. Descriptive statistics is a tool for describing or
summarizing or reducing to comprehensible form the properties of an
otherwise unwieldy mass of data.
Inferential statistics is a formalized body of methods for solving another
class of problems that present great difficulties for the unaided
human mind. 
This general class of problems characteristically
involve attempts to make predictions using a sample of
observations. For example, a school superintendent wishes to determine the
proportion of children in a large school system who come to school without
breakfast, have been vaccinated for flu, or whatever. Having a little
knowledge of statistics, the superintendent would know that it is
unnecessary and inefficient to question each child: the proportion for the
entire district could be estimated fairly
accurately from a sample of as few as 100 children. Thus, the purpose of
inferential statistics is to predict or estimate characteristics of a
population from a knowledge of the characteristics of only a sample of the
population.
统计方法的早期发展受到两种截然不同的影响。 统计学有一个"母亲"，她致力于井井有条地记录政府机构的文件(国家和统计学这两个词源于同一个拉丁语词根，status)，还有一个有绅士般的赌博"父亲"，他依靠数学来提高赌技，以便在几率的游戏中取胜。 "母亲"对其子女统计学的影响表现在计数、测量、描述、制表、归类和人口普查。 所有这些导致了 现代描述统计学的诞生。
由于"父亲"的影响则产生了完全基于概率论原理的现代推理统计 学。 描述统计学涉及对所收集数据的制表、制图和描述。 这些数据可以是数量性的数据，如高度、智商、或者是层级性的数据--具有连续性的变量--或数据也可以代表性质变量，如 性别、大学专业或性格类型等等。数量庞大的数据通常必须经过概括或删减的程序才能为 人所理解。 描述统计学就是这样一个工具，它对极其庞杂的数据进行描述、概括或删减，使其变成能为人理解的东西。 推理统计学是一套已定形了的方法体系，它解决的是光凭人 脑极难解决的另一类问题。这类问题的显著特点是试图通过取样调查来作出预测。 例如， 有一位教育督察想知道在一个庞大的学校系统中，不吃早饭就上学的学生、已经做过防感冒免疫的学生，或其它任何类型的学生占多大比例。 若具备一些统计学的知识，这位督察应 明白，询问每个孩子是没有必要而且没有效率的，只要用 100个孩子为样本，他就可以相当 精确地得出这些孩子占整个学区的比例了。 因此，推理统计学的目的就是通过了解一个群
体中一些样本的特性，从而对整个群体的特性进行推测和估算。
44）Obtaining Fresh Water from Icebergs（从冰山中获取淡水）The concept of obtaining fresh water from icebergs that are towed to
populated areas and arid regions of the world was once treated as a joke
more appropriate to cartoons than real life. But now it is being
considered quite seriously by many nations, especially since scientists
have warned that the human race will outgrow its fresh water supply faster
than it runs out of food.
Glaciers are a possible source of fresh water that has been
overlooked until recently. Three-quarters of the Earth's fresh water
supply is still tied up in glacial ice, a reservoir of untapped fresh
water so immense that it could sustain all the rivers of the world for
1,000 years. Floating on the oceans every year are 7,659 trillion metric
tons of ice encased in 10,000 icebergs that break away from the polar ice
caps, more than ninety percent of them from Antarctica.
Huge glaciers that stretch over the shallow continental shelf give birth to
icebergs throughout the year. Icebergs are not like sea ice, which is
formed when the sea itself freezes, rather, they are formed entirely on
land, breaking off when glaciers spread over the sea. As they drift away
from the polar region, icebergs sometimes move mysteriously in a direction
opposite to the wind, pulled by subsurface currents. Because they melt more
slowly than smaller pieces of ice, icebergs have been known to drift as far
north as 35 degrees south of the equator in the Atlantic Ocean. To corral
them and steer them to parts of the world where they are needed would not
be too difficult.
The difficulty arises in other technical matters, such as the
prevention of rapid melting in warmer climates and the funneling of
fresh water to shore in great volume. But even if the icebergs lost half
of their volume in towing, the water they could provide would be far
cheaper than that produced by desalinization, or removing salt from water. 
把冰山拖到世界上人口稠密的地区和干旱地带，再从中获取淡水，这个想法曾一度被认为是一个笑话，更适合于卡通画，而非现实生活。 然而现在，许多国家正相当认真地考虑 这件事情，特别是在科学家们发出警告之后。
科学家们认为人类将在耗尽粮食之前首先耗 尽淡水资源。冰川是一个直到最近以前一直被忽视的可能的淡水源。 全球四分之三的淡水 还锁在冰川的冰块中。冰川就是一个蓄水池，其中未开发的淡水量是如此巨大，足够支持 全世界的江河 1000 年。 每年有 7，659 万亿公吨冰漂流在海洋中。它们包含在 10，000 座从极地冰帽中断裂出来的冰山中。 这些冰山的 90%以上来自南极。 一年四季里，覆盖在浅层大陆架上的巨大冰川生成了众多冰山。 冰山和海水的冰不同，后者是海水自身结冰 形成的，而冰山则完全是在陆地上形成的。当冰川伸展到海水中时，冰山就断裂下来。 当 漂离极地地区时，冰山有时会在底层洋流的推动下颇为神秘地逆风移动。 由于冰山比小块的冰融化要慢，因此有的冰山在大西洋中向北飘到了赤道以南 35°的地方。 把冰山蓄拦起 来并拖到世界上需要它们的地方将不会太困难。有困难的是其它的技术事宜。 比如，如何 防止冰山在较暖的气候中迅速融化以及如何把大量的淡水收集到岸上去。 但是，即便在拖的过程中冰山失去了一半体积，这样做也远比从海水中脱盐取得淡水便宜。
45） The Source of Energy（能量的来源） A summary of the physical and chemical nature of life must begin, not on
the Earth, but in the Sun; in fact, at the Sun's very center. It is here
that is to be found the source of the energy that the Sun constantly pours
out into space as light and heat. This energy is liberated at the center of
the Sun as billions upon billions of nuclei of hydrogen atoms collide with
each other and fuse together to form nuclei of helium, and in doing so,
release some of the energy that is stored in the nuclei of atoms. The
output of light and heat of the Sun requires that some 600 million tons of
hydrogen be converted into helium in the Sun every second. This the Sun
has been doing for several thousands of millions of years. The nuclear
energy is released at the Sun's center as high-energy gamma radiation, a
form of electromagnetic radiation like light and radio waves, only of very
much shorter wavelength. This gamma radiation is absorbed by atoms inside
the Sun to be reemitted at slightly longer wavelengths. This radiation, in
its turn is absorbed and reemitted. As the energy filters through the
layers of the solar interior, it passes through the X-ray part of the
spectrum eventually becoming light. At this stage, it has reached what we
call the solar surface, and can escape into space without being absorbed
further by solar atoms. A very small fraction of the Sun's light and
heat is emitted in such directions that after passing unhindered
through interplanetary space, it hits the Earth. 
概说生命的物理和化学特性必须始于太阳--确切地说，是太阳的核心，而非地球。 能 量来自太阳的核心。
在这里，太阳不停地以光和热的形式向空间倾泻出能量。 数十亿计的 氢原子核在太阳的核心碰撞并且聚变生成氦。 在此过程中一部分原本储存于原子核中的能量被释放出来。 太阳所产生的光和热需要每秒将六亿吨氢转化为氦。 这样的转化在太阳中已经持续几十亿年了。 核能在太阳的核心被释放为高能的伽马射线。 这是一种电磁射线， 就象光波和无线电波一样，只是波长要短得多。这种伽玛射线被太阳内的原子所吸收，然 后重新释放为波长稍长一些的光波。 这新的射线再次被吸收，而后释放。 在能量由太阳内部一层层渗透出来的过程中，它经过了光谱中 X 射线部分，最后变成了光。 在此阶段，能量到达我们所称的太阳表层，并且离散到空间而不再被太阳原子所吸收。 只有很小一部分 太阳的光和热由此方向释放出来，并且未被阻挡，穿越星空，来到地球。
46） Vision（视觉）Human vision like that of other primates has evolved in an arboreal
environment. In the dense complex world of a tropical forest, it is more
important to see well than to develop an acute sense of smell. In the
course of evolution members of the primate line have acquired large eyes
while the snout has shrunk to give the eye an unimpeded view. Of mammals
only humans and some primates enjoy color vision. The red flag is
black to the bull. Horses live in a monochrome world. Light
visible to human eyes however occupies only a very narrow band in the whole
electromagnetic spectrum. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to humans
though ants and honeybees are sensitive to them. Humans have no direct
perception of infrared rays unlike the rattlesnake which has receptors
tuned into wavelengths longer than 0.7 micron. The world would look eerily
different if human eyes were sensitive to infrared radiation. Then instead
of the darkness of night, we would be able to move easily in a strange
shadowless world where objects glowed with varying degrees of intensity.
But human eyes excel in other ways. They are in fact remarkably discerning
in color gradation. The color sensitivity of normal human vision is rarely
surpassed even by sophisticated technical devices. 
人类的视觉，和其它灵长目动物的一样，是在丛林环境中进化出来的。 在稠密、复杂的热带丛林里，好的视觉比灵敏的嗅觉更加重要。在进化过程中，灵长目动物的眼睛变大， 同时鼻子变小以使视野不受阻碍。 在哺乳类动物中，只有人和一些灵长目动物能够分辨颜色。红旗在公牛看来是黑色的，马则生活在一个单色的世界里。 然而，人眼可见的光在整
个光谱中只占一个非常狭窄的频段。人是看不到紫外线的，尽管蚂蚁和蜜蜂可以感觉到。与 响尾蛇不同，人也不能直接感受到红外线。响尾蛇的感觉器可以感受波长超过 0.7 微米的 光线。 如果人能感受到红外线的话，这世界看上去将十分不同，而且恐怖。 到那时，将与夜的黑暗相反，我们能轻易地在一个奇异的没有阴影的世界里走动。 任何物体都强弱不等 地闪着光。 然而，人眼在其它方面有优越之处。事实上，人眼对颜色梯度具有非凡的分辨 能力。 普通人类的视觉感受色彩的灵敏程度，甚至连精密的技术装备都很难超越。
47） Folk Cultures A folk culture is a small isolated, cohesive, conservative, nearly
self-sufficient group that is homogeneous in custom and race with a strong
family or clan structure and highly developed rituals. Order is maintained
through sanctions based in the religion or family and interpersonal
relationships are strong. Tradition is paramount, and change comes
infrequently and slowly. There is relatively little division of labor into
specialized duties. Rather, each person is expected to perform a great
variety of tasks, though duties may differ between the sexes. Most
goods are handmade and subsistence economy prevails. Individualism is
weakly developed in folk cultures as are social classes. Unaltered folk
cultures no longer exist in industrialized countries such as the United
States and Canada. Perhaps the nearest modern equivalent in Anglo America
is the Amish, a German American farming sect that largely renounces the
products and labor saving devices of the industrial age. In Amish
areas, horse drawn buggies still serve as a local transportation
device and the faithful are not permitted to own automobiles. The Amish's
central religious concept of Demut "humility", clearly reflects the
weakness of individualism and social class so typical of folk cultures and
there is a corresponding strength of Amish group identity. Rarely do the
Amish marry outside their sect.民间文化民间 The religion, a variety of the
Mennonite faith, provides the principal mechanism for maintaining orders.
By contrast a popular culture is a large heterogeneous group often highly
individualistic and constantly changing. Relationships tend to be
impersonal and a pronounced division of labor exists, leading to the
establishment of many specialized professions. Secular institutions of
control such as the police and army take the place of religion and family
in maintaining order, and a money-based economy prevails. Because of these
contrasts, "popular" may be viewed as clearly different from "folk". The
popular is replacing the folk in industrialized countries and in many
developing nations. Folk-made objects give way to their popular equivalent,
usually because the popular item is more quickly or cheaply produced, is
easier or time saving to use or leads more prestige to the owner.
文化是小型的、孤立的、紧密的、保守的、近乎自给自足的群体，具有同 样的习俗、同样的人种和强有力的家庭或部族结构以及高度发展的宗教仪式。秩序由宗教 或家庭的约束来维持，成员间的关系非常紧密，传统至高无上，很少有变动且变动缓慢。 劳 动专业分工相对较少。每个人都要做各类活计，尽管男女两性分工不同。 绝大多数物品是 手工制造的，经济一般为自给自足型。 个人主义和社会阶层在民间文化群体中的发展十分
薄弱。在象美国和加拿大这样的工业化国家里，一成不变的民间文化群体已不复存在了。在 当代美洲的英语区，与民间文化最相似的群体也许算是 Amish。 Amish 是美国的德裔农耕 部落，他们基本上拒绝接受工业时代的大多数产品和节省劳力的设施。 在 Amish 地区，轻便马车仍是当地的交通工具，信徒们不允许拥有汽车。 Amish 宗教中的核心观念 Demut 即 谦卑典型地反映了在民间文化群中个人主义和阶级的不发达。
而与此同时，Amish 对群体 的认同性却十分强。 Amish 人很少和他们宗派以外的人通婚。 其宗教，作为 Mennonite 信仰的一种，提供了维护秩序的主要机制。 相反，大众文化是包含不同种族的大群体，通常 高度个性化而且不断在变化。人际关系冷漠，劳动分工明确，由此产生了许多专门的职业。 世俗的控制机构，比如警察和军队，取代了宗教和家庭来维持秩序，而且实行的是货币经济。由于存在着这些差异，"大众的"与"民间的"可谓大相径庭。 在工业化国家以及许多发展中 国家里，大众文化正在取代民间文化。民间制造的物品正让位于大众化产品，这通常是因 为大众化的物品制造起来更快、更便宜，用起来更容易、更方便或者是能给其所有者带来更 多的威望。
48） Bacteria（细菌）Bacteria are extremely small living things. While we measure our own
sizes in inches or centimeters, bacterial size is measured in microns. One
micron is a thousandth of a millimeter: a pinhead is about a millimeter
across. Rod-shaped bacteria are usually from two to four microns long,
while rounded ones are generally one micron in diameter. Thus if you
enlarged a rounded bacterium a thousand times, it would be just about the
size of a pinhead. An adult human magnified by the same amount would be
over a mile (1.6 kilometers) tall.
Even with an ordinary microscope, you must look closely to see
bacteria. Using a magnification of 100 times, one finds that bacteria are
barely visible as tiny rods or dots. One cannot make out anything of their
structure. Using special stains, one can see that some bacteria have
attached to them wavy-looking "hairs" called flagella. Others have only one
flagellum. The flagella rotate, pushing the bacteria through the water.
Many bacteria lack flagella and cannot move about by their own
power, while others can glide along over surfaces by some
little-understood mechanism.
From the bacterial point of view, the world is a very different place from
what it is to humans. To a bacterium water is as thick as molasses is to
us. Bacteria are so small that they are influenced by the movements of
the chemical molecules around them. Bacteria under the microscope,
even those with no flagella, often bounce about in the water. This is
because they collide with the water molecules and are pushed this way and
that. Molecules move so rapidly that within a tenth of a second the
molecules around a bacterium have all been replaced by new ones; even
bacteria without flagella are thus constantly exposed to a changing
environment.
细菌是极其微小的生物体。 我们用英寸或厘米来测量自己的大小，而测量细菌却 要用微米。 一微米等于千分之一毫米。 针头直径大约一毫米。棒状细菌通常有 2～4 微米 长，而圆形细菌的直径一般只有 1 微米。 因此，即使你把一个圆形细菌放大 1000 倍，它也 不过一个针头那么大。可是如果把一个成年人放大 1000 倍，就会变成 1 英里(或 1.6 公里) 多高。 用一般的显微镜观察细菌时，你必须仔细观察才能看见它们。 使用100 倍的显微镜 时，你会发现细菌不过是隐约可见的小细棒或小点点，而它们的结构你却根本看不出来。 使 用特殊的着色剂后，你会发现有的细菌上长着不少波状的"毛发"即鞭毛，而有的细菌只有一 根鞭毛。 鞭毛的旋转可以推动细菌在水中行进。
不少细菌没有鞭毛，因而不能自己行进。 还有些细菌却能通过某些鲜为人知的机制沿物体表面滑动。 我们所熟知的世界在细菌眼中 完全是另一个样子。对于细菌来说，水就同糖浆之于人类一样稠密。 细菌是如此的微小， 周围化学分子的一举一动都会对它们产生影响。 在显微镜下，细菌，甚至包括那些没有鞭毛的细菌，经常在水中跳来跳去。 这是因为它们与水分子相撞后，被弹向各个方向。 分子 移动很迅速，仅 0.1秒之隔，一个细菌周围的分子就会完全更新。 因此，即使是没有鞭毛 的细菌也暴露在一个不断变化的环境中。
49） Sleep （睡眠）Sleep is part of a person's daily activity cycle. There are several
different stages of sleep, and they too occur in cycles. If you are an
average sleeper, your sleep cycle is as follows. When you
first drift off into slumber, your eyes will roll about a bit, your
temperature will drop slightly, your muscles will relax, and your
breathing well slow and become quite regular. Your brain waves slow down a
bit too, with the alpha rhythm of rather fast waves predominating for the
first few minutes. This is called stage 1 sleep. For the next half hour or
so, as you relax more and more, you will drift down through stage 2 and
stage 3 sleep. The lower your stage of sleep, the slower your brain waves
will be. Then about 40 to 60 minutes after you lose consciousness you will
have reached the deepest sleep of all. Your brain waves will show the large
slow waves that are known as the delta rhythm. This is stage 4 sleep.
You do not remain at this deep fourth stage all night long, but instead
about 80 minutes after you fall into slumber, your brain activity level
will increase again slightly. The delta rhythm will disappear, to be
replaced by the activity pattern of brain waves. Your eyes will begin to
dart around under your closed eyelids as if you were looking at something
occurring in front of you. This period of rapid eye movement lasts for some
8 to 15 minutes and is called REM sleep. It is during REM sleep period,
your body will soon relax again, your breathing will grow slow and regular
once more, and you will slip gently back from stage 1 to stage 4 sleep -
only to rise once again to the surface of near consciousness some 80
minutes later.
睡眠是人每天日常活动循环的一部分。 人的睡眠分几个阶段，而这些阶段也是循环发 生的。 如果你是一个正常的睡眠者，你的睡眠循环会这样进行。在你开始昏昏入睡时，你 的眼睛会滚动几下，体温略有下降，肌肉放松，呼吸变得缓慢而有节奏。 除了开始几分钟 比较快的α节奏外，脑电波也稍有减缓。这被称为第一阶段睡眠。 在随后约半小时内，你 进一步放松，进入第二和第三阶段睡眠。 睡眠越深入，脑电波就越缓慢。 大约在开始睡眠 后的 40 到 60 分钟，你将进入沉睡状态。 这时的脑电波表现为巨大的缓波，被称为δ节奏。 这就是第四阶段睡眠。 但你并不是整夜都保持这种沉睡状态。 入睡后约
80 分钟左右，你 的大脑运动水平会再度略有提高。 δ节奏消失，并被脑电波的运动图形取代。你的眼睛会
在闭着的眼睑下迅速转动，就好象你在看着眼前发生的什么事情。 这种迅速的眼球运动持 续约 8～15 分钟，这一阶段睡眠被称之为快速眼动(REM)睡眠。在 REM 睡眠阶段，你的肢 体会很快再度放松，呼吸也再次放慢并变得有节奏，你会轻松地从第一阶段滑入第四阶段睡 眠-直到大约 80分钟后重新接近清醒状态。
50） Cells and Temperature （细胞与温度）Cells cannot remain alive outside certain limits of temperature, and much
narrower limits mark the boundaries of effective functioning. Enzyme
systems of mammals and birds are most efficient only within a narrow range
around 37 ℃; a departure of a few degrees from this value seriously
impairs their functioning. Even though cells can survive wider
fluctuations, the integrated actions of bodily systems are impaired.
Other animals have a wider tolerance for changes of bodily temperature. For
centuries it has been recognized that mammals and birds differ from other
animals in the way they regulate body temperature. Ways of
characterizing the difference have become more accurate and meaningful
over time, but popular terminology still reflects the old division into
"warm blooded" and "cold blooded" species; warm-blooded included
mammals and birds whereas all other creatures were considered cold-blooded.
As more species were studied, it became evident that this classification
was inadequate. A fence lizard or a
desert iguana -- each cold-blooded -- usually has a body temperature only a
degree or two below that of humans and so is not cold. Therefore the next
distinction was made between animals that maintain a constant body
temperature, called homeotherms, and those whose body temperature varies
with their environment, called poikilotherms. But this classification also
proved inadequate, because among mammals there are many that vary their
body temperatures during hibernation. Furthermore, many invertebrates that
live in the depths of the ocean never experience a change in the chill of
the deep water, and their body temperatures remain constant. 
细胞只能在一定的温度范围内存活，而进一步保证它们有效工作的温度范围就更小了。哺乳动物和鸟类的酶系统只能在 37℃左右的很小范围内才能有效工作。 与此相差仅几度的 温度都会大大削弱它们的工作效率。尽管温度变化更大时细胞仍能存活，但机体系统的整体运行能力却被削弱了。 其它动物对体温的变化有更强的适应性。 几个世纪以来，人们就 认识到哺乳动物和鸟类调节体温的方式与其它动物不同。 随着时间的推移，人们对这种差异的描述越来越精确和有意义，但是"暖血动物"和"冷血动物"这一古老的分类方式至今仍在 大众词汇中有所反映。暖血动物包括哺乳动物和鸟类，其它动物统统被视为冷血动物。但是对更多物种进行的研究表明这种分类显然是不适当的。美洲一种小型蜥蜴和沙漠鬣蜥同
属冷血动物，但实际上它们的体温通常只比人类的体温低 1～2 度，因此并不是真正的冷血。因此又出现了恒温动物(即保持恒定体温的动物)和变温动物(即体温随外界环境的变化而改 变的动物)这一区分方式。 但这种分类也不恰当。
因为有不少哺乳动物在冬眠期间会改变 体温，而许多生活在深海的无脊椎动物在寒冷的深海水域中体温并不变化，而是恒定的。

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